Tuning the Photophysical Properties of Acceptor–Donor–Acceptor Di-2-(2-oxindolin-3-ylidene) Malononitrile Materials via Extended π–Conjugation: A Joint Experimental and Theoretical Study

Abstract

Many optoelectronic applications require organic semiconductor (OSC) materials with high electron affinity. In this work, a series of novel acceptor–donor–acceptor (A–D–A) materials with low-lying LUMO energy levels were designed and characterized. In this strategy, two acceptor dyes, bis-isatin and di-2-(2-oxindolin-3-ylidene) malononitrile, were connected by various π–bridges (benzene ring, benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazole, monothiophene, trithiophene). We varied the length of the π–conjugation of the central core and the linkage position of the acceptor core (4- vs. 6-position of the phenyl ring) to investigate the effect on the optical and electrochemical properties of the materials. We performed density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD–DFT) studies to gain insight into the dyes’ electronic properties by determining the energy levels. Our findings demonstrate that with increasing acceptor strength and π–conjugation length of the core, the wavelength of the longest absorption maximum as well as their respective extinction coefficients are enhanced, which results in band-gap reduction either by lowering the LUMO and/or raising the HOMO energy level of the molecules. The potential practical utility of these materials as electron-transport materials for perovskite solar cells (PSCs) has been demonstrated.