An Open-Source, Low-Cost Apparatus for Conductivity Measurements Based on Arduino and Coupled to a Handmade Cell

Abstract

Electrical conductivity is one of the main parameters for the characterization of water solutions and for the monitoring of water sources. In this paper, we describe a very inexpensive prototype for conductivity measurements based on Arduino UNO R3 coupled to an open-source circuit board with only passive components. We designed the printed circuit board (PCB) and the suitable handmade cell using stainless-steel electrodes and wrote the freeware management software; the assembly of the prototype, including a temperature probe, and results were relatively simple. In order to allow for replicates, the instrument design, schematics, and software are available with an open-source license. Thirty-one bottles of spring waters with conductivities of between 15.2 and 2000 µS cm−1 were tested using both this prototype and a commercial conductivity meter. Data correlation produced an equation that allowed us to obtain the conductivity value, starting with the value furnished by the Arduino apparatus in arbitrary units. The prototype is accurate enough (inaccuracy lower than 6% excluding very low conductivity values) and precise (RSD% of about 5%). Even if a lot of commercial instruments for conductivity are available, we propose a prototype built with the aim of lowering the cost of measurements, while ensuring that they remain useful for lab or in situ application, as well as for continuous water monitoring/management systems. A further aim was to propose the building of the instrument as a laboratory exercise; this can help students to better understand basic theoretical concepts regarding conductivity, electronic components, and the acquisition and treatment of analytical data.