Alternatives for Fresh Water in Cement-Based Materials: A Review

Abstract

Huge amounts of fresh water are used in the concrete industry every day. The quantity and quality of water play important roles in determining the quality, strength, setting time, and durability of cement-based materials (CBMs), such as paste, mortar, and concrete. Freshwater systems are under pressure due to climate changes, industrialisation, population growth, urbanisation, and the lack of proper water resource management. The lack of potable water has resulted in the search for possible alternatives, such as seawater, treated industrial wastewater, treated sewage wastewater, carwash service station wastewater, wastewater from ready-mix concrete plants, and wastewater from the stone-cutting industry. All of these water resources can be used in concrete to achieve adequate industry standards for the physical and chemical characteristics of concrete. This study is a comprehensive review of the existing information regarding the effects of alternate water resources on the fresh, physical, strength, and durability properties of CBMs. The review shows that the research on the utilisation of wastewater in CBMs is limited. The development of different procedures and methods is urgently needed to utilise various wastewaters in concrete production. The usage of various wastewaters in concrete construction overcomes their adverse impacts on the environment and human health.