Materials and Manufacturing Techniques for Polymeric and Ceramic Scaffolds Used in Implant Dentistry

Abstract

Preventive and regenerative techniques have been suggested to minimize the aesthetic and functional effects caused by intraoral bone defects, enabling the installation of dental implants. Among them, porous three-dimensional structures (scaffolds) composed mainly of bioabsorbable ceramics, such as hydroxyapatite (HAp) and β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) stand out for reducing the use of autogenous, homogeneous, and xenogenous bone grafts and their unwanted effects. In order to stimulate bone formation, biodegradable polymers such as cellulose, collagen, glycosaminoglycans, polylactic acid (PLA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL), polyglycolic acid (PGA), polyhydroxylbutyrate (PHB), polypropylenofumarate (PPF), polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), and poly L-co-D, L lactic acid (PLDLA) have also been studied. More recently, hybrid scaffolds can combine the tunable macro/microporosity and osteoinductive properties of ceramic materials with the chemical/physical properties of biodegradable polymers. Various methods are suggested for the manufacture of scaffolds with adequate porosity, such as conventional and additive manufacturing techniques and, more recently, 3D and 4D printing. The purpose of this manuscript is to review features concerning biomaterials, scaffolds macro and microstructure, fabrication techniques, as well as the potential interaction of the scaffolds with the human body.