Assessment of Sewage Molecular Markers: Linear Alkylbenzenes in Sediments of an Industrialized Region in Peninsular Malaysia

Author:

Alkhadher Sadeq A. A.1,Al-Hazmi Hussein E.2ORCID,Suratman Suhaimi3,Zakaria Mohamad P.4,Masood Najat5,Szeląg Bartosz6ORCID,Magam Sami M.7,Al-Qadami Ebrahim H. H.8,Majtacz Joanna3,Kowal Przemysław3ORCID,Kurniawan Tonni A.9ORCID,Abdulrahman Sameer A. M.10ORCID,Albaseer Saeed S.11ORCID

Affiliation:

1. Institute of Energy Infrastructure (IEI), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Putrajaya Campus, Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia

2. Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdansk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland

3. Institute of Oceanography and Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia

4. Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences (IOES), University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia

5. Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, University of Ha’il, Ha’il 1560, Saudi Arabia

6. Faculty of Environmental, Geomatics and Renewable Energy, Kielce University of Technology, 25-314 Kielce, Poland

7. Basic Science Department, Preparatory Year, University of Ha’il, Ha’il 1560, Saudi Arabia

8. Eco Hytech Research Centre, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Parit Raja 86400, Johor, Malaysia

9. College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China

10. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education and Sciences-Rada’a, Albaydha University, Albaydha 14517, Yemen

11. Department of Evolutionary Ecology & Environmental Toxicology, Biologicum, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Abstract

In this study, the use of linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) was employed to pinpoint the sources of human activity that cause detrimental impacts on the coastal environment and river ecosystems. LABs were detected using GC–MS in sediment samples assembled from Kim Kim River (KKR) and the Port Dickson coast (PDC). To assess the significance of variations in the distribution and concentrations of LABs across the sampling sites, this study utilized several statistical techniques such as post hoc tests, LSD techniques, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the Pearson correlation coefficient using a significance level of p < 0.05. The degradation levels of LABs and wastewater treatment were assessed in the study using internal congeners (I/E), homologs of C13 and C12, and long-to-short-chain (L/S) ratios. The results revealed that the LAB concentrations varied between 88.3 and 112 ng/g dw in KKR and 119 to 256 ng/g dw in the PDC. Most of the surveyed areas exhibited a substantial count of C13–LABs homologs that displayed a significant difference (p < 0.05). The I/E ratios ranged from 1.7 to 2.0 in KKR and from 2.0 to 4.1 in the PDC, suggesting that the effluents originated from sources associated with the physical phase and biological phase in wastewater treatment systems (WWTSs). The results revealed that the degradation of LABs varied between 34% and 38% in KKR and between 40% and 64% in the PDC. This study underscores the importance of ongoing improvements to WWTSs and emphasizes the potential of LABs as indicators for monitoring wastewater contamination.

Funder

University Malaysia Terengganu

Inisiatif Putra Berkumpulan Grant

Publisher

MDPI AG

Subject

Water Science and Technology,Aquatic Science,Geography, Planning and Development,Biochemistry

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