Role of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition for the Generation of Circulating Tumors Cells and Cancer Cell Dissemination

Abstract

Tumor-related death is primarily caused by metastasis; consequently, understanding, preventing, and treating metastasis is essential to improving clinical outcomes. Metastasis is mainly governed by the dissemination of tumor cells in the systemic circulation: so-called circulating tumor cells (CTCs). CTCs typically arise from epithelial tumor cells that undergo epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), resulting in the loss of cell–cell adhesions and polarity, and the reorganization of the cytoskeleton. Various oncogenic factors can induce EMT, among them the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, as well as Wnt and Notch signaling pathways. This entails the activation of numerous transcription factors, including ZEB, TWIST, and Snail proteins, acting as transcriptional repressors of epithelial markers, such as E-cadherin and inducers of mesenchymal markers such as vimentin. These genetic and phenotypic changes ultimately facilitate cancer cell migration. However, to successfully form distant metastases, CTCs must primarily withstand the hostile environment of circulation. This includes adaption to shear stress, avoiding being trapped by coagulation and surviving attacks of the immune system. Several applications of CTCs, from cancer diagnosis and screening to monitoring and even guided therapy, seek their way into clinical practice. This review describes the process leading to tumor metastasis, from the generation of CTCs in primary tumors to their dissemination into distant organs, as well as the importance of subtyping CTCs to improve personalized and targeted cancer therapy.