From Plan to Pivot: How Model‐Informed Drug Development Shaped the Dose Strategy of the Zibotentan/Dapagliflozin ZENITH Trials

Abstract

Getting the dose right is a key challenge in drug development; model‐informed drug development (MIDD) provides powerful tools to shape dose strategies and inform decision making. In this tutorial, the case study of the ZENITH trials showcases how a set of clinical pharmacology and MIDD approaches informed an impactful dose strategy. The endothelin A receptor antagonist zibotentan, combined with the sodium‐glucose co‐transporter‐2 inhibitor dapagliflozin, has yielded a robust and significant albuminuria reduction in the Phase IIb trial ZENITH‐CKD and is being investigated for reduction of kidney function decline in a high‐risk chronic kidney disease population in the Phase III trial ZENITH High Proteinuria. Endothelin antagonist treatment has, until now, been limited by the class effect fluid retention. ZENITH‐CKD investigated a wide range of zibotentan doses based on pharmacokinetics in renal impairment, competitor‐data exposure–response modeling, and clinical trial simulations. Recruitment delays reduced interim analysis data availability; here, supportive dose–response modeling recovered decision‐making confidence. At trial completion, the low‐dose arm enabled Phase III dose selection between Phase IIb doses. Dose–response modeling of efficacy and Kaplan–Meier analyses of tolerability identified a kidney‐function‐based low‐dose strategy of 0.25 or 0.75 mg zibotentan (with 10 mg dapagliflozin) to balance benefit/risk in ZENITH High Proteinuria. The applied clinical pharmacology and MIDD principles enabled successful Phase IIb dose finding, rationalized and built confidence in the innovative Phase III dosing strategy and identified a potential therapeutic window for zibotentan/dapagliflozin, providing the opportunity for a significant improvement in the treatment of chronic kidney disease with high proteinuria.