Non-Nitrogen-Containing Bisphosphonates Prevent Pyrophosphorylation of Exocytosis Proteins

Abstract

Background: Clodronate, a non-nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate (non-NBP), is intracellularly converted into non-hydrolyzable ATP analogs. Clodronate and its analogs impair normal cell functions, including the exocytosis process. However, how this occurs in mast cells is still not well characterized. Objective: To summarize the possible mechanisms of clodronate-mediated exocytosis inhibition in mast cells. Results: Non-NBPs display several possible mechanisms of exocytosis inhibition in various cell types, including vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT) and purinergic receptor inhibition. Inhibition of purinergic receptors has been shown in mast cells, but VNUT inhibition remains to be confirmed. Inhibition of protein prenylation by non-NBPs has also been shown; however, direct evidence of non-NBPs in prenylated exocytosis proteins is still contradictory. Finally, non-NBPs may inhibit mast cell exocytosis via impairment of protein pyrophosphorylation. This mechanism is less studied, and direct evidence of the involvement of pyrophosphorylated proteins in exocytosis is still lacking. Conclusions: Non-NBPs may affect mast cell exocytosis by interacting with purinergic receptors or VNUT or by preventing post-translational modifications of exocytosis protein(s), i.e., prenylation and pyrophosphorylation. The latter needs further investigation to provide direct evidence of a role for non- NBPs.