1. Representative monographs published in the last three decades on late imperial China’s internal and “external” frontiers and borderlands include, but are not limited to, Wensheng Wang, White Lotus Rebels and South China Pirates: Crisis and Reform in the Qing Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014); Steven B. Miles, Upriver Journeys: Diaspora and Empire in Southern China, 1570–1850 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2017); John Robert Shepherd, Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993); Ronald C. Po, The Blue Frontier: Maritime Vision and Power in the Qing Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018); Seonmin Kim, Ginseng and Borderland: Territorial and Political Relations between Qing China and Chosŏn Korea, 1636–1912 (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2017); James A. Millward, Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998); Xiuyu Wang, China’s Last Imperial Frontier: Late Qing Expansion in Sichuan’s Tibetan Borderlands (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011); C. Patterson Giersch, Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China’s Yunnan Frontier (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).