1. An earlier version of this paper was presented in the Invited Symposium on "The Duality of Leadership and Followership: Social, Cognitive, and Organizational Perspectives," Ann Howard. Organizer and Chair, at the American Psychological Society Annual Convention. Washington. DC, June 16, 1991 Several of the ideas here were presented in my March 1989 presidential address to the Eastern Psychological Association at the annual convention in Boston.
2. Separating Leadership from Leaders: An Assessment of the Effect of Leader and Follower Roles in Organizations
3. Fora review, see E.P. Hollander, Leadership and power, in The Handbook of Social Psychology, 3rd ed., G. Lindzey and E. Aronson, Eds. (Random House, New York, 1985): see also R.E. Keliey. In praise of followers, Harvard Business Review, 88(61), 142-148(1988).
4. Leadership, followership, and friendship: an analysis of peer nominations.