1. *My thanks to Seth Jacobs, Lynne Marks, Mark Noll, Gagan Sood, Elizabeth Vibert, and the journal's anonymous reviewers for their very helpful and constructive criticism of earlier versions of this essay. I also benefited greatly from presenting versions of this article to the International Security Studies Colloquium, Yale University, February 2006 and the Conference on Religious History, Boston College, March 2006.
2. 1. The four quotations are from, respectively, Harry S. Truman, "Address at a Luncheon of the National Conference of Christians and Jews," November 11, 1949,Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1949(Washington, DC, 1964), 563; Harry S. Truman, "Remarks in Alexandria, Va., at the Cornerstone Laying of the Westminster Presbyterian Church," November 23, 1952,Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1952-1953(Washington, DC, 1966), 1063; Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Remarks to the First National Conference on the Spiritual Foundations of American Democracy," November 9, 1954,Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1954(Washington, DC, 1960), 1031; and John F. Kennedy, "Inaugural Address," January 20, 1961,Public Papers of the Presidents: John F. Kennedy, 1961(Washington, DC, 1962), 1.
3. 2. On Truman's religion, see Alonzo L. Hamby,Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman(New York, 1995), 21, 474. On Eisenhower's, see Herbert S. Parmet,Eisenhower and the American Crusades(New York, 1972), 22-23, 164; Peter Lyon,Eisenhower: Portrait of the Hero(Boston, 1974), 22-23, 164; Stephen Ambrose,Eisenhower, vol. 1,1890-1952(New York, 1983), 19-20, 24, 36; and Stephen Ambrose,Eisenhower, vol. 2,The President(New York, 1984), 38. On Kennedy's, see Theodore C. Sorensen,Kennedy(New York, 1965), 19-20, 108-13, 126-27, 136-48, 175-76, 186-95, 217-23; Robert Dallek,An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963(Boston, 2003), 59, 86-87, 146-47, 205, 227-96 passim, 687, 701-6; and Thomas J. Carty,A Catholic in the White House? Religion, Politics, and John F. Kennedy's Presidential Campaign(New York, 2004). For brief religious biographies of all three, see John Sutherland Bonnell,Presidential Profiles: Religion in the Life of American Presidents(Philadelphia, 1971), 212-30. On the religious underpinnings of the foreign policies of the Truman and Eisenhower administrations, see William Inboden, "The Soul of American Diplomacy: Religion and Foreign Policy, 1945-1960" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 2003).
4. Bush's Foreign Policy
5. 9/11 and American Foreign Policy*