Abstract
<div>In subsonic aircraft design, the aerodynamic performance of aircraft is compared
meaningfully <i>at a system level</i> by evaluating their range and
endurance, but cannot do so at <i>an aerodynamic level</i> when using
lift and drag coefficients, <i>C<sub>L</sub>
</i> and <i>C<sub>D</sub>
</i>, as these often result in misleading results for different wing
reference areas. This Part I of the article (i) illustrates these shortcomings,
(ii) introduces a dimensionless number quantifying the induced drag of aircraft,
and (iii) proposes an <i>aerodynamic equation of state</i> for lift,
drag, and induced drag and applies it to evaluate the aerodynamics of the canard
aircraft, the dual rotors of the hovering <i>Ingenuity</i> Mars
helicopter, and the composite lifting system (wing plus cylinders in Magnus
effect) of a YOV-10 <i>Bronco</i>. Part II of this article applies
this aerodynamic equation of state to the flapping flight of hovering and
forward-flying insects. Part III applies the aerodynamic equation of state to
some well-trodden cases in fluid mechanics found in fluid-mechanics
textbooks.</div>
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