1. Charles Lester Leonard, "The Application of Roentgen Rays to Medical Diagnosis," Journal of the American Medical Association, 29 (1897):1197-1198
2. and on the wider meanings of this aspiration to eliminate the "personal equation," see Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, Objectivity, New York: Zone Books, 2007. I explore the epistemological and moral clash between older and newer programs in John Harley Warner, Against the Spirit of System: The French Impulse in Nineteenth-Century American Medicine, Princeton, N.J., and London: Princeton University Press, 1998, pp. 291-329, and in "Ideals of Science and Their Discontents in Late Nineteenth-Century American Medicine," Isis, 82 (1991): 454-478.
3. Th. Puschmann, “Die Bedeutung der Geschichte für die Medicin und die Naturwissenschaften,” Deutsche Medicinische Wochenschrift, 15 (1889) 817-820; Frank Huisman and John Harley Warner,“Medical Histories,” in Huisman and Warner, eds., Locating Medical History: The Stories and Their Meanings, Baltimore and London, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004, 1-30, esp. 10-11; and see John C. Burnham, How the Idea of Profession Changed the Writing of Medical History, London: Welcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1998; Elizabeth Fee and Theodore M. Brown, eds., Making Medical History: The Life and Times of Henry E. Sigerist, Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997; and Ralf Bröer, ed., Eine Wissenschaft emanzipiert sich.Die Medizinhistoriographie von der Aufklärung bis zur Postmoderne, Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus- Verlagsgesellschaft, 1999.
4. Alfred Stillé, “An Address Delivered to the Medical Classes of the University of Pennsylvania, on Withdrawing from His Chair, April 10, 1884,” Medical News, 44 (1884): 433-438, p. 435.
5. Austin Flint, “The President's Address: American Medical Association, Thirty-Fifth Annual Meeting, Washington, 1884,” Medical News, 44 (1884): 523-536, p. 527. On the larger rift in conceptions of professionalism, see Warner, “Ideals of Science and Their Discontents.”.