Influence of Preterm Birth and Environmental Context on Academic Performance and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes

Abstract

Background Preterm birth affects 10% of all births annually in the United States. Outcomes of people born preterm are challenging to predict because of multiple influences, including gestational age, birth weight, and social and environmental contexts, that contribute to an individual’s growth and developmental trajectory. The influence of toxic stress is underrepresented in the literature assessing preterm birth outcomes. Objectives The current analyses use the eco-bio-developmental model of poverty and preterm birth as a framework to model the pathways among toxic stress, preterm birth, and neurodevelopmental outcomes. Poverty and toxic stress were hypothesized to increase the risk for impaired neurodevelopmental and academic outcomes—both directly and indirectly. Methods The analytic sample of 55,873 children aged 6–17 years was derived from the National Survey of Children’s Health 2020–2021. Structural equation models with combined measurement and path models for each dependent variable were constructed using latent toxic stress variables. The structural path equations included direct paths from the latent measure of prenatal toxic stress, preterm birth status, and the latent measure of childhood toxic stress to the neurodevelopmental outcome, as well as an indirect, mediated path from prenatal toxic stress through preterm birth status to the outcome. Results Across models, higher levels of prenatal toxic stress were significantly associated with preterm birth and lower birth weight ranges. Preterm low birth weight status was associated with a greater likelihood of neurodevelopmental impairment, repeating a grade, and special education plans. The predicted probabilities of neurodevelopmental impairment, repeating grades, and special education plans are significantly higher with above-average levels of exposure to prenatal and childhood toxic stress. Discussion There is a need for prospective studies that assess predictors and outcomes of preterm birth that are stratified by gestational age and consider the timing, chronicity, and influence of toxic stress and environmental exposures. There is an imperative for public health programs and policies designed to support families, caregivers, and children to address the individual and structural social determinants of health that contribute to toxic stress, thereby increasing preterm birth rates and negatively affecting the outcomes of children born preterm.