1. J. H. Jaffe in Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics A. G. Gilman T. W. Rall A. S. Nies P. Taylor Eds. (Pergamon New York ed. 8 1990) pp. 522–573.
2. World Health Organization International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (World Health Organization Geneva 10th revision 1990).
3. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association Washington DC ed. 4 1994).
4. A recent Institute of Medicine report [Institute of Medicine Pathways of Addiction (National Academy Press Washington DC 1996)] used a three-stage conceptualization of drug-taking behavior that applies to all psychoactive drugs whether licit or illicit: use abuse and dependence. “Use” of drugs is the taking of drugs in the narrow sense to distinguish it from a more intensified pattern of use. “Abuse” refers to any harmful use regardless of whether the behavior constitutes a disorder in the DSM-IV of the American Psychiatric Association. “Dependence” refers to “substance dependence” as defined by DSM-IV or “addiction” as defined by International Classification of Diseases (ICD 10).
5. Koob G. F., Nestler E. J., J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 9, 482 (1997);