Atoms in Gaseous and Solid States and their Energy and Force Relationships under Transitional Behaviors

Abstract

Abstract By recalling the conventional insights of different atomic states, it is possible to discover new insights, which can cope the existing challenges. In fact, atoms consist of electrons and energy knot nets. In atoms of all elements, suitably intercrossed overt photons form or construct energy knots. In growing atoms of gaseous and solid states, schemes of intercrossing overt photons become different. To construct atomic lattice in any element, overt photons in suitable length and number intercross by keeping the centers of their lengths at a common point. A scheme of intercrossing overt photons frames energy knots simultaneously clamping to positioned electrons. Atoms are differentiated on the basis of their different numbers of energy knots and electrons. A number of unfilled states in an atom represents a valency. Excluding hydrogen, atoms possess the same valence number as specified for them. However, two more electrons with two already prescribed ones for the first shell form the zeroth ring of the atom. In the hydrogen atom, only two electrons are available for two energy knots; two overt photons of the least measured lengths intercross to form the shape like digit eight. In this way, four electrons are clamped by four energy knots to form helium atom. Thus, a helium atom is related to a zeroth ring in all higher order atoms. In order to validate these aforementioned statements, the concept of studying protons and neutrons is no longer significant. As far as the atoms of gaseous state are concerned, electrons possess the minimum required potential energy. In this way, electrons of gaseous atoms remain above the middle of clamped energy knots in more than half the length, and they keep on experiencing the maximum required levitational force along the north pole. In atoms of solid state, electrons possess the maximum required potential energy. In this way, electrons of solid atoms remain below the middle of clamped energy knots in more than half the length, and they keep on experiencing the maximum required gravitational force along the south pole. Each transition state of the atom is under the established relation of energy and force. Under transitional energy of an atom, electrons undertake infinitesimal displacements within the clamped energy knots, where orientational force keeps on engaging them to introduce the recovery, neutral, re-crystallization and liquid states. Electrons left to the center of atom orientate from north to east clockwise and electrons right to the centre of atom orientate from north to west anti-clockwise during the conversion of gaseous atom to liquid state. On the other hand, electrons left to the center of atom orientate from south to east anti-clockwise and electrons right to the center of atom orientate from south to west clockwise during the conversion of solid atom to liquid state. These fundamental revolutions shed new light on the development of sustainable science and engineering.