Phylogeography and genetic structure of Papever bracteatum populations in Iran based on genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS)

Abstract

Abstract Papaver bracteatum, known for its high thebaine content and absence of morphine, has emerged as a promising alternative to opium poppy for codeine production. In this study, our objective was to create a diverse panel representing the natural variation of this species in Iran. To achieve this, we employed genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) to obtain genome-wide distributed single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for phylogeographic analysis, population structure assessment, and evaluation of genetic diversity within P. bracteatum populations. A total of 244 P. bracteatum individuals from 13 distinct populations formed seven genetic groups, along with one highly admixed population. We observed a split between the populations inhabiting the Alborz and Zagros Mountain systems. In between these mountain ranges the population of Kachal Mangan exhibited a high degree of genetic admixture. Our results suggest that habitat fragmentation, climate change, limited seed dispersal, and human pressure on the species’ habitats are potential factors contributing to the genetic isolation of P. bracteatum populations. Our findings underscore the urgency of implementing conservation measures to safeguard the wild populations as important genetic resources for future breeding approaches in this medicinally important species.