Abstract
Breeding and intraspecific communication are crucial for the behavioral ecology of solitary carnivores. studying communication behaviors and observing cubs in their natural habitat pose challenges. During a seven-year research project (2015–2022) in northern Pakistan, thirty-two motion-triggered cameras were strategically placed to capture leopard behaviors. The study documented a total of 103 leopard events, with 40 occurrences in snowy conditions and 63 in snow-free areas. Nine unique communication behaviors were identified and the cameras recorded ten videos showing leopard cubs with their mother.The study revealed that snow leopards were more active in marking behaviors in snow-free areas at night and less active when snow was present. Crepuscular activities had the highest frequency with snow, while daytime, nocturnal activities had lower values. Snow leopards exhibited more marking activities in open areas and less in mixed herbaceous and shrub habitats. Daytime marking peaked in the evening with snow and at midnight without snow. Olfaction and scraping were more common in open land, while fecal deposition was frequently seen in mixed herbaceous and shrub habitats. Scraping and urine spraying were associated with cliffs and rock outcrops/boulders in open areas. Snow leopards tended to avoid scrape marks in snowy conditions, preferring urine spraying or olfaction behaviors. However, in snowless areas, leopards preferred scraping and urine marking. The study also documented ten videos of a female with cubs across various study sites. These behaviors, similar to those of other solitary felids, help understand communication behaviors among different species of solitary felids in different environmental conditions