1. For an overview of key developments in the evolution of the use of EM in the US over 60 years, see W Burrell and R Gable, 'From B F Skinner to Spiderman to Martha Stewart: The Past, Present and Future of Electronic Monitoring of Offenders;Routledge, 2013) 1. For a recent summary of its use across Europe, see M Nellis,2008