1. The author wishes to thank J. O. Baylen, W. Roger Louis, Robert Kiste, and Geoffrey White for their help and suggestions.
2. Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 71, No. 1, pages 91-125. ISSN 0030-8684 c2002 by the Pacific Coast Branch, American Historical Association. All rights reserved. Send requests for permission to reprint to: Rights and Permissions, University of California Press, 2000 Center St., Ste. 303, Berkeley, CA 94704-1223.
3. 1 William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902 (New York, 1965), 67. In his recent study of the Cold War, John L. Gaddis defines empire as "a situation in which a single state shapes the behavior of others, whether directly or indirectly, partially or completely, by means that can range from the outright use of force through intimidation, dependency, inducements, and even inspiration." John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (New York, 1997); see also Michael W. Doyle, Empires (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986).
4. 2