1. For careful readings of the dissertation on which this article is based, I thank Keith N. Morgan, who also commented on a draft of this article, and Jessica Ellen Sewell. Additionally, I am grateful for the helpful comments of the editor and anonymous reviewer and for the funding provided by a Henry Luce Foundation /ACLS Dissertation Fellowship in American Art, a Francis A. Countway Library Fellowship in the History of Medicine, a Grant-in-Aid from the Rockefeller Archive Center, and a Walter Read Hovey Memorial Fund Scholarship from the Pittsburgh Foundation.
2. G. Canby Robinson, “The Relation of Medical Education to the Medical Plant,” Journal of the American Medical Association 81, no. 4 (28 July 1923), 321. Robert Collins, late professor of pathology at Vanderbilt University, introduced me to this article.
3. Examples of scholarship on hospitals include John D. Thompson and Grace Goldin, The Hospital: A Social and Architectural History (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1975); Adrian Forty, “The Modern Hospital in England and France: The Social and Medical Uses of Architecture,” in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, ed. Anthony D. King (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980), 61–93; Allan M. Brandt and David Charles Sloane, “Of Beds and Benches: Building the Modern American Hospital,” in The Architecture of Science, ed. Peter Galison and Emily Thompson (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999), 281–305; Stephen Verderber and David J. Fine, Healthcare Architecture in an Era of Radical Transformation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000); David Charles Sloane and Beverlie Conant Sloane, Medicine Moves to the Mall (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Annmarie Adams, Medicine by Design: The Architect and the Modern Hospital, 1893–1943 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008). Other spaces for the care of patients, such as insane asylums, have also received consideration. See Carla Yanni, The Architecture of Madness: Insane Asylums in the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007). Despite the long-standing interest in places for clinical care, scholars are only just beginning to examine spaces for medical education. One article analyzes a specific medical school: Steven J. Peitzman, “Style and Space: Designing a Medical School Building for Women in the 1870s,” Medical Humanities Review 13, no. 2 (Fall 1999), 28–43. A more recent article explores a professional and educational space for practicing physicians: Matthew Walker, “Architecture, Anatomy, and the New Science in Early Modern London: Robert Hooke's College of Physicians,” JSAH 72, no. 4 (Dec. 2013), 475–502.
4. The larger study of which this article forms a part considers four-year schools that offered the MD degree, embraced the new scientific medicine, and located their entire programs in the same city. For additional discussion of the parameters of the research, see Katherine L. Carroll, “Modernizing the American Medical School, 1893–1940: Architecture, Pedagogy, Professionalization, and Philanthropy” (PhD diss., Boston University, 2012), 21–23.
5. Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 11–20.