1. My use of the term “universal civilization” follows Paul Ricoeur, “Universal Civilization and National Cultures,” in History and Truth, trans. Charles A. Kelbley (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1965), 276–77.
2. See “Kamutay musabakası programı hulâsası” [A summary of the Turkish parliament competition program], Arkitekt, no. 88 (Apr. 1938), 99–132. The other jury members were Ivar Tengbom of Sweden and Howard Robertson of England. “Duyumlar” [Hearings], Arkitekt, nos. 82–83 (Oct. 1937), 313–14. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are my own.
3. Willem M. Dudok, “Hilversum Belediye Binası” [Hilversum City Hall], Arkitekt, nos. 11–12 (Nov. 1931), 375–77.
4. Willem M. Dudok, “Zamanımızda şehircilik ve mimari,” Arkitekt, no. 73 (Jan. 1937), 16–17.
5. See, for example, Mete Tapan, “International Style: Liberalism in Architecture,” in Modern Turkish Architecture, ed. Renata Holod and Ahmet Evin (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984), 109.