Quantifying synergistic effects of multi-temporal ecosystem service bundles for degraded ecosystem restoration: a case study in Hubei Province, China

Abstract

Abstract Ecological restoration is vital for combating ecosystem degradation and enhancing ecosystem services. However, conventional approaches typically tend to focus on a single ecosystem service at a particular time, resulting in a limited understanding of the interactions and trade-offs among various services. This study proposes a novel method that utilizes ecosystem service bundles (ESBs) over time to identify degraded areas of prioritize restoration efforts. By employing ESBs, double-counting is avoided, and accuracy is improved. In this study, the area of degraded ecosystems identified based on ESBs accounted for approximately 40.27% of the total area of individual ecosystem service degradation. Restoration measures are shown to vary in effectiveness for different ESBs across different scenarios, with land-to-lake restoration improving ESB II (flood regulation services), while other measures significantly enhance ESB I (pollination services, habitat provision services, and carbon sequestration services). Strengthening shelterbelts on both sides of rivers, lakes and wetlands, as well as expanding habitat restoration scope, can effectively improve both ESB I and ESB II. Artificial afforestation can boost all three ESBs simultaneously, but its impact is limited due to land availability. Restoration efforts may also result in trade-offs, with ESB III (water production services and soil conservation services) declining. The findings provide decision-makers with a useful tool for prioritizing ecological restoration areas and selecting appropriate restoration measures to enhance multiple ecosystem services synergistically.