The challenges in establishing conservation-based ecotourism in the human-elephant conflict outside protected area: a literature review

Abstract

Abstract Most people who live near elephant ecosystems view elephants as aggressive, dangerous animals and pests as if the ecosystem disservices them. Interaction between humans and elephants living outside protected areas inevitably leads to conflict that causes agricultural land damage and wild elephant killings. The human-elephant conflict would become more complex because there are many stakeholders involved with various influences and interests, which makes human-elephant coexistence difficult to achieve. This paper aims to review wild elephant-based ecotourism challenges and formulate the challenges of ecotourism outside protected areas. The results of the challenges are reviewed in the constructions of socioeconomic and ecology. Such knowledge can be used to evaluate the applicability of potential technical solutions to reshape the negative interactions of humans and wildlife into opportunities for ecosystem services.