Machine learning and deep learning-based advanced classification techniques for the detection of major depressive disorder

Abstract

PurposeDepression is a mental health problem characterized by a persistent sense of sadness and loss of interest. EEG signals are regarded as the most appropriate instruments for diagnosing depression because they reflect the operating status of the human brain. The purpose of this study is the early detection of depression among people using EEG signals.Design/methodology/approach(i) Artifacts are removed by filtering and linear and non-linear features are extracted; (ii) feature scaling is done using a standard scalar while principal component analysis (PCA) is used for feature reduction; (iii) the linear, non-linear and combination of both (only for those whose accuracy is highest) are taken for further analysis where some ML and DL classifiers are applied for the classification of depression; and (iv) in this study, total 15 distinct ML and DL methods, including KNN, SVM, bagging SVM, RF, GB, Extreme Gradient Boosting, MNB, Adaboost, Bagging RF, BootAgg, Gaussian NB, RNN, 1DCNN, RBFNN and LSTM, that have been effectively utilized as classifiers to handle a variety of real-world issues.Findings1. Among all, alpha, alpha asymmetry, gamma and gamma asymmetry give the best results in linear features, while RWE, DFA, CD and AE give the best results in non-linear feature. 2. In the linear features, gamma and alpha asymmetry have given 99.98% accuracy for Bagging RF, while gamma asymmetry has given 99.98% accuracy for BootAgg. 3. For non-linear features, it has been shown 99.84% of accuracy for RWE and DFA in RF, 99.97% accuracy for DFA in XGBoost and 99.94% accuracy for RWE in BootAgg. 4. By using DL, in linear features, gamma asymmetry has given more than 96% accuracy in RNN and 91% accuracy in LSTM and for non-linear features, 89% accuracy has been achieved for CD and AE in LSTM. 5. By combining linear and non-linear features, the highest accuracy was achieved in Bagging RF (98.50%) gamma asymmetry + RWE. In DL, Alpha + RWE, Gamma asymmetry + CD and gamma asymmetry + RWE have achieved 98% accuracy in LSTM.Originality/valueA novel dataset was collected from the Central Institute of Psychiatry (CIP), Ranchi which was recorded using a 128-channels whereas major previous studies used fewer channels; the details of the study participants are summarized and a model is developed for statistical analysis using N-way ANOVA; artifacts are removed by high and low pass filtering of epoch data followed by re-referencing and independent component analysis for noise removal; linear features, namely, band power and interhemispheric asymmetry and non-linear features, namely, relative wavelet energy, wavelet entropy, Approximate entropy, sample entropy, detrended fluctuation analysis and correlation dimension are extracted; this model utilizes Epoch (213,072) for 5 s EEG data, which allows the model to train for longer, thereby increasing the efficiency of classifiers. Features scaling is done using a standard scalar rather than normalization because it helps increase the accuracy of the models (especially for deep learning algorithms) while PCA is used for feature reduction; the linear, non-linear and combination of both features are taken for extensive analysis in conjunction with ML and DL classifiers for the classification of depression. The combination of linear and non-linear features (only for those whose accuracy is highest) is used for the best detection results.