Device-independent quantum randomness–enhanced zero-knowledge proof

Abstract

Zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) is a fundamental cryptographic primitive that allows a prover to convince a verifier of the validity of a statement without leaking any further information. As an efficient variant of ZKP, noninteractive zero-knowledge proof (NIZKP) adopting the Fiat–Shamir heuristic is essential to a wide spectrum of applications, such as federated learning, blockchain, and social networks. However, the heuristic is typically built upon the random oracle model that makes ideal assumptions about hash functions, which does not hold in reality and thus undermines the security of the protocol. Here, we present a quantum solution to the problem. Instead of resorting to a random oracle model, we implement a quantum randomness service. This service generates random numbers certified by the loophole-free Bell test and delivers them with postquantum cryptography (PQC) authentication. By employing this service, we conceive and implement NIZKP of the three-coloring problem. By bridging together three prominent research themes, quantum nonlocality, PQC, and ZKP, we anticipate this work to inspire more innovative applications that combine quantum information science and the cryptography field.