Are autosomal sex-determining factors of the housefly (Musca domestica) spreading north?

Abstract

SummaryMultiple sex-determining factors have been found in natural populations of the housefly,Musca domestica. Their distribution seems to follow a geographical cline. The ‘standard’ system, with a male-determining factor,M, located on the Y chromosome, prevails at higher latitudes and altitudes. At lower latitudes and altitudesMfactors have also been found on any of the five autosomes. Such populations often also harbour a dominant autosomal factor,FD, which induces female development even in the presence of severalMfactors. AutosomalMfactors were first observed some 50 years ago. It has been hypothesized that following their initial appearance, they are spreading northwards, replacing the standard XY system, but this has never been systematically investigated. To scrutinize this hypothesis, we here compare the current distribution of autosomalMfactors in continental Europe, on a transect running from Germany to southern Italy, with the distribution reported 25 years ago. Additionally, we analysed the frequencies of theFDfactor, which has not been done before for European populations. In contrast to earlier predictions, we do not find a clear change in the distribution of sex-determining factors: as 25 years ago, only the standard XY system is present in the north, while autosomalMfactors and theFDfactor are prevalent in Italy. We discuss possible causes for this apparently stable polymorphism.