1. Stein, “Mortality,” pp. 36–37 and pp. 40–41.
2. Klein, Middle Passage, p. 55, reports an average mortality of 93 per thousand among 162,225 slaves arriving at Rio de Janeiro between 1795 and 1811. That (apparent) percentage may be converted to a mortality rate of 97.54 per thousand for the average voyage. But how long was the average voyage? In Klein and Engerman, “Shipping Patterns,” p. 386, an average saili.ng time of 39.1 days is reported for slaving ships arriving at Rio de Janeiro from several African regions between 1825 and 1830. If it is reasonable to use this average sailing time to interpret data on mortality among slaves making the passage to Rio between 1795 and 1811, the monthly mortality rate would then be 74.84 per thousand.