Paternal depression in the postpartum year and children’s behaviors at age 5 in an urban U.S. birth cohort

Abstract

Objective To investigate associations between postpartum depression in fathers and children’s behaviors at age 5 in a national high-risk U.S. sample. Study design A secondary data analysis of 1,796 children in a national birth cohort study that oversampled non-marital births was conducted. Paternal depression was assessed 1 year after the child was born and children’s behaviors were assessed by their primary caregivers when the children were 5 years old. Unadjusted and adjusted negative binomial regression models of associations between paternal depression and child behavior scores and logistic regression models of associations between paternal depression and high scores (at least 1.5 or 2.0 standard deviations above the mean) were estimated. Results In negative binomial regression models that adjusted for child, paternal, and family characteristics and maternal depression, paternal depression was associated with a 17% higher total externalizing behavior score (Incidence Rate Ratio (IRR): 1.17; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.07–1.27), a 17% higher aggressive subscale score (IRR: 1.17; 95% CI: 1.08–1.27), and an 18% higher delinquent subscale score (IRR: 1.18; 95% CI: 1.03–1.35). In adjusted logistic regression models for scores ≥2.0 standard deviations above the mean, paternal depression was associated with high total externalizing scores (e.g., Odds Ratio (OR): 3.09; 95% CI: 1.77–5.41), high aggressive behavior scores (OR: 2.40; 95% CI: 1.30–4.43), and high delinquent behavior scores (OR: 2.08; 95% CI: 1.01–4.27). There were suggestive but non-robust associations between paternal depression and attention problems and no associations between paternal depression and internalizing behaviors or social problems. Conclusion Fathers’ depression at age 1 was associated with children’s externalizing behaviors at age 5, an important developmental stage when children transition to school. These findings suggest a need to identify and support fathers with depressive symptoms to promote optimal child development.