Automated identification of cephalometric landmarks: Part 1—Comparisons between the latest deep-learning methods YOLOV3 and SSD

Abstract

ABSTRACT Objective: To compare the accuracy and computational efficiency of two of the latest deep-learning algorithms for automatic identification of cephalometric landmarks. Materials and Methods: A total of 1028 cephalometric radiographic images were selected as learning data that trained You-Only-Look-Once version 3 (YOLOv3) and Single Shot Multibox Detector (SSD) methods. The number of target labeling was 80 landmarks. After the deep-learning process, the algorithms were tested using a new test data set composed of 283 images. Accuracy was determined by measuring the point-to-point error and success detection rate and was visualized by drawing scattergrams. The computational time of both algorithms was also recorded. Results: The YOLOv3 algorithm outperformed SSD in accuracy for 38 of 80 landmarks. The other 42 of 80 landmarks did not show a statistically significant difference between YOLOv3 and SSD. Error plots of YOLOv3 showed not only a smaller error range but also a more isotropic tendency. The mean computational time spent per image was 0.05 seconds and 2.89 seconds for YOLOv3 and SSD, respectively. YOLOv3 showed approximately 5% higher accuracy compared with the top benchmarks in the literature. Conclusions: Between the two latest deep-learning methods applied, YOLOv3 seemed to be more promising as a fully automated cephalometric landmark identification system for use in clinical practice.