1. Professor of Criminology, School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales NSW 2052 Australia.
2. Professor, Charles Booth Chair of Social Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX UK.
3. Research Associate, Comparative Youth Penalty Project, School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales NSW 2052 Australia.
4. The authors acknowledge the significant contribution of Elizabeth Clarke, the former research associate on the CYPP, as well as the comments of anonymous reviewers.