1. • Kotter JP. Leading change. Harvard Business Press; 1996. Kotter’s eight-step model is used to manage change across a wide variety of organizations and industries. The eight steps of change occur in three phases: (a) establishing optimal conditions for change; (b) enabling the organization for change and empowering individuals for change; and (c) implementing and sustaining change. In Table 1, an example plan is given using the Kotter model.
2. •• Zimlichman E, Henderson D, Tamir O, Franz C, Song P, Yamin CK, et al. Health care–associated infections: a meta-analysis of costs and financial impact on the US health care system. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(22):2039–46. Zimlichman and his colleagues provide an estimation of healthcare costs attributed to hospital-acquired infections in the USA using data from years 1986 through 2013. Major findings include (a) central line-associated bloodstream infections are the most expensive per-case hospital-acquired infections; (b) the total annual cost for the five major infections is approximately $9.8 billion; and (c) surgical site infections contribute the most to total hospital-acquired infection treatment cost at 33.7%.
3. • Scott RD. The direct medical costs of healthcare-associated infections in US hospitals and the benefits of prevention. Commissioned by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2009, Economist R. Douglas Scott reports on the economic impact of treating and preventing hospital-acquired infections in the USA. The overall annual direct medical costs of hospital-acquired infection treatment was estimated at $28.4 to $33.8 billion (using consumer price index for all urban consumers) and $35.7 billion to $45 billion (using consumer price index for inpatient hospital services). The benefits of hospital-acquired infection prevention are estimated at a low to be $5.7 to $6.8 billion (20% of infections preventable, consumer price index for all urban consumers) and at a high to be $25.0 to $31.5 billion (70% of infections preventable, consumer price index for inpatient hospital services).
4. Kondo KK, Damberg CL, Mendelson A, Motu’apuaka M, Freeman M, O’Neil M, et al. Implementation processes and pay for performance in healthcare: a systematic review. J Gen Intern Med. 2016;31(1):61–9.
5. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Hospital-Acquired Condition Reduction Program (HACRP).