Hydrometallurgical Routes to Close the Loop of Electric Vehicle (EV) Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) Value Chain: A Review

Abstract

AbstractWith an ever-increasing demand for energy, there is a proportionate increase in energy storage devices, among which batteries hold the key to the energy transition. Globally, batteries constitute the fastest-growing energy storage technology that is playing a key role in the transport sector electrification leading to rising demand for LIBs. However, there is a substantial need for innovation that will help mitigate the environmental effects of the production and use of LIBs—such as energy use, mineral extraction, and chemical processing. The battery value chain can be seen as an exceptional sustainable value creation opportunity wherein sustainability depends in part on the ability to reuse and recycle batteries. A typical LIB battery serves in electric vehicles (EVs) for about 5–10 years and needs to be replaced when they reach ~ 20% capacity loss. At this stage, the fate of the battery follows one of the routes—disposal, reuse/repurpose/remanufacture (3R) or recycle. However, a major obstacle for car and battery manufacturers to invest in second life, or to otherwise take advantage of the reuse market, is that they in many cases do not have control over the batteries. On the other hand, recycling LIBs holds tremendous potential owing to the recirculation of materials i.e., closed-loop recycling needed for battery manufacturing promoting sustainability. This review will enable readers to devise processes that contribute to closing the loop of the EV LIBs value chain from an industrial perspective as well as critically understand the current state and future of battery recycling. Graphical Abstract