1. Hartley, J. Some factors affecting student performance in programmed learning.Programmed Learning & Educational Technology, 1968,5 (3), 206–218. For a system to work effectively, each component must act reliably. The student is an essential component in a teaching machine system: in particular, he exerts considerable control over the time contraints
2. See Gropper, G. L. The design of stimulus materials in response-oriented programs.AV Communication Review, 1970,18 (2), 129–159. [Ed.] of the system. Yet it is unlikely that the student—because of external and internal pressures—can always work in a reliable way, and so the teaching system may operate in a less than optimum manner. In this paper American and British experiments concerned with this aspect of programed instruction are reviewed under the following headings: 1) programed learning in pairs, 2) programed learning in small groups, and 3) externally paced instruction. It is concluded, despite the limited nature of the evidence, that there are situations wherein learning under conditions of self-pacing may be less efficient than 1) learning with others, 2) learning under some form of external pacing, and 3) a combination of these approaches.
3. Hartley, J., & Holt, J. Social aspects of programmed learning.Proceedings: Danish Conference on Programmed Learning. Copenhagen: Ministry of Education, 1968, 158–174. In this paper it is argued that programed learning may be viewed in the context of social psychology. To show this, possible applications of social psychology to programed learning are first surveyed. Next, problems raised by programed learning in pairs are discussed with particular reference to 1) pairs versus individuals, and 2) different methods of pairing. Three experiments are described in which an “activity” program was used with secondary school pupils with a narrow ability range. The quality of research in this area is discussed, and it is concluded that more precision is needed in order to answer the basic questions that arise.
4. Hartley J., & Hogarth, F. W. Programmed learning in pairs.Educational Research, 1971,13 (2), 130–134. If it is accepted that programed learning is a viable teaching technique, then it is important to know how to make the best use of programs. One method of using them which may have certain advantages is to allow pupils to work in pairs. If pupils are to work in pairs, then does it matter how they are paired? Are there different methods of pairing which might lead to more efficient learning, and, if so, what are they? The experiment described in this paper adds to and extends the knowledge already gained in this field.
5. Hartley, J., Holt, J., & Hogarth, F. W. Academic motivation and programmed learning.British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1971, in press. This paper is divided into two parts. In part one the concept of academic motivation is discussed, and the development of a questionnaire designed to measure academic motivation in English secondary school children is described. Evidence is presented to show that the scale has high validity and reliability. Part two describes the results of an experiment wherein scores obtained on this questionnaire were used as a basis for pairing pupils to work through a programed text especially written for paired work. The results are discussed in the light of previous research on academic motivation, programed learning, and programed learning in pairs.