1. The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme: A Study of Global Change. The Initial Core Projects, Report No. 12 (Stockholm, Sweden: IGBP Secretariat, Box 50005, SE-104 05, June 1990), 1–3.
2. Ibid., 1–4.
3. Vannevar Bush’s report was submitted to President Truman in 1945 and republished as Vannevar Bush, Science, the Endless Frontier (Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation, 1960). Bush wrote that our national health, prosperity, and security all depend on “essential, new knowledge [that] can be obtained only through basic scientific research.” (p. 5). “As long as [centers of basic research] are free to pursue the truth wherever it may lead, there will be a flow of new scientific knowledge to those who can apply it to practical problems in Government, in industry, or elsewhere” (p. 12). For a critique of the linear model, see George E. Brown, Jr., “The Objectivity Crisis,” Amer. J. Physics 60 (September 1992): 779–781, at 780–781: “[T]he scientific community must seek to establish a new contract with policy makers, based not on demands for autonomy and ever-increasing budgets, but on the implementation of an explicit research agenda rooted in [social] goals” such as “zero population growth, less waste, less consumption of nonrenewable resources, less armed conflict, less dependence on material goods as a metric of wealth or success.” See also Donald E. Stokes, Pasteur’s Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1997), which advocates use-inspired basic research but accepts linearity.
4. International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, A Study of Global Change: The Initial Core Projects, Report No. 12, 1–5. The world’s decision makers were not yet organized as the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
5. International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Science Plan and Implementation Strategy, Report No. 55 (Stockholm, Sweden: IGBP Secretariat, Box 50005, SE-104 05, 2006), 1, edited by B. Young, K. Noone and W. Steffen.