1. On atomic scientists’ early political activism in the United States, see Alice K. Smith’s classic study, A Peril and a Hope: The Scientists’ Movement in America, 1945–1947 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965). Smith published a précis of her argument in “Scientists and the Public Interest, 1945–1946”, Newsletter on Science, Technology and Human Values, 24 (June 1978), pp. 2431. See also, R.R. Wilson, “Hiroshima: The Scientists’ Social and Political Reaction”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 140 (1996), pp. 350–357; Elizabeth Hodges, “Precedents for Social Responsibility among Scientists: The American Association of Scientific Workers and the Federation of American Scientists, 1938–1948” (Ph.D dissertation, University of California-Santa Barbara, 1983); and Lawrence Badash, Scientists and the Development of Nuclear Weapons: From Fission to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1939–1963(Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1995). Studies that place the scientists’ reaction to the bomb into larger contexts include: Allan M. Winkler, Life Under a Cloud: American Anxiety about the Atom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985 ); and Lawrence S. Wittner, The Struggle Against the Bomb, 2 vols. ( Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993–1997 ).
2. Quoted in Peter J. Kuznick, Beyond the Laboratory: Scientists as Political Activists in 1930s America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), p. 3, which provides other examples of this argument. See also Edward Schils, "Scientists in the Public Arena", American Scholar, 56 (1987), pp. 185-202
3. Paul T. Durbin, Social Responsibility in Science, Technology, and Medicine (Bethlehem, Penn.: Lehigh University Press, 1992), p. 24
4. and Rae Goodell, The Visible Scientists (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977 ), pp. 40-42.
5. On the difficulties of the pure and applied distinction in science, especially as they relate to the American context, see Nathan Reingold, "The Scientist as Troubled American", American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 40 (1979), pp. 1107-1113