1. For an early nineteenth century “manifesto” see Landre-Beauvais, A. J. (1813) Séméiotique ou traité des signes des maladies, 2nd ed. Brosson, Paris, Introduction and pp 1–16. For a general discussion see Barthes, R. (1972) Sémiologie et medicine. In Bastide, R. (ed) Les sciences de la folie. Mouton, Paris, pp 34–46; Lanteri, Laura G. (1966) Les apports de la linguistique a la psychiatrie contemporaine. Mason, Paris; Juliard, P. (1970) Philosophies of language in eighteenth-century France. Mouton, The Hague.
2. Laín Entralgo, P. (1978) Historia de la medicina. Salvat, Barcelona
3. Albarracín, Teulón A. (1983) La teoria celular. Historia de un paradigma. Alianza Editorial, Madrid
4. Canguilhem, G. (1966) Le normal et le pathologique. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris. For a detailed history of all psychiatric diseases see Berrios, G. E., and Porter, R. (eds) (1995) The history of clinical psychiatry. Athlone Press, London.
5. Georgin, B. (1980) Remarques sur le discours nosologique en psychiatrie. L’Evolution Psychiatrique 45: 5–17; Larson, J. L. (1971) Reason and experience. The representation of natural order in the work of Carl Von Linné, University of California Press, Berkeley; Whewell, W. (1857) History of the inductive sciences. John W Parker, London; Delasiauve M (1861) Des diverses formes mentales. Journal de Médecine Mentale 1: 4–14; Boyer, L. (1873) Histoire de la Médicine. In Dechambre, A. (ed) Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales. Vol 6, Asselin and Masson, Paris, pp 1–209.