Ecological Divergence and the History of Gene Flow in the Nearctic Milksnakes ( Lampropeltis triangulum Complex)

Abstract

Abstract Many phylogeographic studies on species with large ranges have found genetic–geographic structure associated with changes in habitat and physical barriers preventing or reducing gene flow. These interactions with geographic space, contemporary and historical climate, and biogeographic barriers have complex effects on contemporary population genetic structure and processes of speciation. While allopatric speciation at biogeographic barriers is considered the primary mechanism for generating species, more recently it has been shown that parapatric modes of divergence may be equally or even more common. With genomic data and better modeling capabilities, we can more clearly define causes of speciation in relation to biogeography and migration between lineages, the location of hybrid zones with respect to the ecology of parental lineages, and differential introgression of genes between taxa. Here, we examine the origins of three Nearctic milksnakes (Lampropeltis elapsoides, Lampropeltis triangulum and Lampropeltis gentilis) using genome-scale data to better understand species diversification. Results from artificial neural networks show that a mix of a strong biogeographic barrier, environmental changes, and physical space has affected genetic structure in these taxa. These results underscore conspicuous environmental changes that occur as the sister taxa L. triangulum and L. gentilis diverged near the Great Plains into the forested regions of the Eastern Nearctic. This area has been recognized as a region for turnover for many vertebrate species, but as we show here the contemporary boundary does not isolate these sister species. These two species likely formed in the mid-Pleistocene and have remained partially reproductively isolated over much of this time, showing differential introgression of loci. We also demonstrate that when L. triangulum and L. gentilis are each in contact with the much older L. elapsoides, some limited gene flow has occurred. Given the strong agreement between nuclear and mtDNA genomes, along with estimates of ecological niche, we suggest that all three lineages should continue to be recognized as unique species. Furthermore, this work emphasizes the importance of considering complex modes of divergence and differential allelic introgression over a complex landscape when testing mechanisms of speciation. [Cline; delimitation; Eastern Nearctic; Great Plains; hybrids; introgression; speciation.]