1. Roger M. Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 1–4, 507–508. On the other hand, Gary Gerstle sees two traditions of citizenship running through U.S. history: “civic nationalism” and “racial nationalism.” See Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).
2. For the two Cherokee cases, see Vine Deloria, Jr. and Clifford M. Lytle, American Indians, American Justice (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983), 25–33; Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 165–168. For general treatments of Native Americans’ constitutional status over time, including issues related to sovereignty, see Frank Pommersheim, Braid of Feathers: American Indian Law and Contemporary Tribal Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); and Charles F. Wilkinson, Native Societies in a Modern Constitutional Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987).
3. Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846–1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984); Ralph K. Andrist, The Long Death: The Last Days of the Plains Indians (New York: MacMillan, 1964); and Robert A. Trennert, Jr., Alternative to Extinction: Federal Indian Policy and the Beginnings of the Reservation System (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1975); and Prucha, American Indian Treaties, chapter 12.
4. Henry S. Pancoast, Impressions of the Sioux Tribes in 1882, with Some First Principles in the Indian Question (Philadelphia: Franklin Printing House, 1883), 6–7; Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1886, Executive House Document, 49th Cong., 2nd sess., serial 2467, p. 4; and Proceedings of the Lake Mohonk Conference of Friends of the Indian (hereafter cited as LMC), 1886, reprinted in Prucha, Americanizing the American Indians, 65.
5. Carl Schurz, “Present Aspects of the Indian Problem,” North American Review 133 (July 1881), reprinted in Prucha, Americanizing the American Indians, 16; and Pancoast, The Indian Before the Law (Philadelphia: Indian Rights Association, 1884), reprinted in Prucha, Americanizing the American Indians, 165.