Brittle fracture in structural steels: perspectives at different size-scales

Abstract

This paper describes characteristics of transgranular cleavage fracture in structural steel, viewed at different size-scales. Initially, consideration is given to structures and the service duty to which they are exposed at the macroscale , highlighting failure by plastic collapse and failure by brittle fracture. This is followed by sections describing the use of fracture mechanics and materials testing in carrying-out assessments of structural integrity. Attention then focuses on the microscale , explaining how values of the local fracture stress in notched bars or of fracture toughness in pre-cracked test-pieces are related to features of the microstructure: carbide thicknesses in wrought material; the sizes of oxide/silicate inclusions in weld metals. Effects of a microstructure that is ‘heterogeneous’ at the mesoscale are treated briefly, with respect to the extraction of test-pieces from thick sections and to extrapolations of data to low failure probabilities. The values of local fracture stress may be used to infer a local ‘work-of-fracture’ that is found experimentally to be a few times greater than that of two free surfaces. Reasons for this are discussed in the conclusion section on nano -scale events. It is suggested that, ahead of a sharp crack, it is necessary to increase the compliance by a cooperative movement of atoms (involving extra work) to allow the crack-tip bond to displace sufficiently for the energy of attraction between the atoms to reduce to zero.