Calcium- and Sodium-Rich Food Intake among Koreans with and without Metabolic Syndrome: Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study

Abstract

Background: The prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) is increasing. While calcium and sodium are known nutritional factors used for managing MetS, few studies have focused on food-based analyses. This cross-sectional study examined the distribution of calcium- and sodium-rich food intake among Koreans with MetS. Methods: This cross-sectional analysis evaluated 130,423 participants from the Health Examinees-Gem cohort study. Foods contributing up to 90% of the calcium and sodium intake were selected from the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, and consumption levels were calculated. MetS was defined as satisfying three or more criteria from the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III. The results are presented as odds ratios (OR) with an interquartile range (ORIQR) and 95% confidence interval. Results: Participants with MetS showed a low calcium intake (ORIQR = 0.95 and 0.92 for men and women, respectively), low consumption of dairy products (ORIQR = 0.92 and 0.89), beverages except for coffee or green tea (ORIQR = 0.97 and 0.96), and bread (ORIQR = 0.96 and 0.94). Men with MetS consumed high total sodium (ORIQR = 1.04), and large amounts of Kimchi (ORIQR = 1.03), fermented paste (ORIQR = 1.04), and noodles (ORIQR = 1.07). Women with MetS consumed more Kimchi than those without MetS (ORIQR = 1.04). The odds ratio for the low calcium and high sodium group compared to the high calcium and low sodium group was 1.26. Conclusion: The MetS group consumed less calcium-rich foods and more sodium-rich foods than those without MetS. Patients with MetS might benefit from precise recommendations of high calcium-rich and low sodium-rich foods.