Assessment of Pharmacokinetic Drug–Drug Interactions in Humans: In Vivo Probe Substrates for Drug Metabolism and Drug Transport Revisited

Abstract

Pharmacokinetic parameters of selective probe substrates are used to quantify the activity of an individual pharmacokinetic process (PKP) and the effect of perpetrator drugs thereon in clinical drug–drug interaction (DDI) studies. For instance, oral caffeine is used to quantify hepatic CYP1A2 activity, and oral dagibatran etexilate for intestinal P-glycoprotein (P-gp) activity. However, no probe substrate depends exclusively on the PKP it is meant to quantify. Lack of selectivity for a given enzyme/transporter and expression of the respective enzyme/transporter at several sites in the human body are the main challenges. Thus, a detailed understanding of the role of individual PKPs for the pharmacokinetics of any probe substrate is essential to allocate the effect of a perpetrator drug to a specific PKP; this is a prerequisite for reliably informed pharmacokinetic models that will allow for the quantitative prediction of perpetrator effects on therapeutic drugs, also in respective patient populations not included in DDI studies.