A Global Review of Invasive Haemophilus influenzae Disease from 2000-2023: Current Status, Challenges and Future Perspectives

Abstract

Abstract Haemophilus influenzae is one of the causative agent of invasive bacterial pathogens that affects both children and adults. Haemophilus influenzae is a pleomorphic gram-negative coccobacillus and it is a common commensal of the upper respiratory tract. It is a human-only pathogen that can cause severe invasive diseases. These bacterial infections can range from mild, such as ear infections, to severe, such as bloodstream infections. The infections typically affect children younger than 5 years old and old age person older than 65 years. They also affect people who are immunocompromised, such as those with certain medical conditions. The highest incidence rates of invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease have recently been discovered in various nations, including North America, Canada, and parts of Europe. In order to monitor the evolving nature of invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease critically reviewed data is required to capture the true status of invasiveness of the Haemophilus influenza disease. Developing new vaccines against Haemophilus influenzae is a potential solution to protect some vulnerable populations against the invasive disease due to this bacterial species. This review article thoroughly investigates recent and up-to-date biomedical science perspective development, innovation, findings, publications and current areas of scientific interest and gap including pathogenicity, diagnosis, multidrug-resistance, Molecular characterization and genetic evolution, epidemiology and immunological characteristics of Haemophilus influenzae, including specific current issues that are affecting the research and development of vaccines to treat Haemophilus influenzae non-serotype b diseases and providing insight into how these problems may be overcome.