1. The unit of observation is an individual. Colonial imprisonment measure is prisoners per 100,000 pop. which are averages of long-term (>2 years sentence) prisoners per 100,000 population (1939 pop.) over 1920 to 1938. Postcolonial imprisonment measure is prisoners per 100,000 pop. which are current state level averages of prisoners per 100,000 population (1990 pop.) over 1971 to 1995. Regressions in columns (1) to (2) use district fixed effects at the current state level in Nigeria, and in columns (3) to (4) use geopolitical zone fixed effects. All regressions use year fixed effects, educational attainment fixed effects and controls for sub-district or local government area population density in 2006. Individual controls include age, age squared and gender. Geographic controls at the sub-district level include ruggedness, indicators for petroleum, seacoast and mean elevation in alternate specifications. Disease controls at the sub-district level include malaria suitability and tse tse fly suitability in alternate specifications with results unchanged;Notes: Regressions estimated by OLS. Robust standard errors in parentheses clustered by colonial province in columns (1) to (2) and by current administrative state in (3) to (4). Wild cluster bootstrap (by district) p-values are in brackets. The unit of observation is an individual