Abstract
Chapter 4 considers how the equivalence of measures is determined across different cultural groups. Equivalence of measures in this instance refers to whether or not the assessment means the same thing across those different cultures. The types of bias that might exist as well as methods used to assess potential bias are described. These ideas are presented for assessments in general, and are not limited to visual assessments. Examples from the literature are provided to illustrate the methods discussed in this chapter. Application to visual assessment is also discussed at the conclusion of the chapter.