1. Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bull. no. 4 (New York: Carnegie Foundation, 1910). Background on the early history of American physiology is provided by Edward C. Atwater, “`Squeezing Mother Nature’: Experimental Physiology in the United States Before 1870,” Bull. Hist. Med. 52 (1978): 313–335; John Harley Warner, “Physiology,” in The Education of American Physicians: Historical Essays, ed. Ronald L. Numbers (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1980), pp. 48–71; and Walter J. Meek, “The Beginnings of American Physiology,” Ann. Med. Hist. 10 (1928): 111–125.
2. For background on American medical education see Numbers, ed. Education of American Physicians; Martin Kaufman American Medical Education: The Formative Years 1765–1910 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1976); and Kenneth M. Ludmerer Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985). An important but controversial history of American medical research is Richard H. Shryock American Medical Research: Past and Present (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1947). For an overview of the relationship between science and medicine see Warner, “Science in Medicine,” Osiris, 2d ser., 1 (1985): 37–58; Samuel E. D. Shortt, “Physicians, Science, and Status: Issues in the Professionalization of Anglo-American Medicine in the Nineteenth Century,” Med. Hist. 27 (1983): 51–68; and W. Bruce Fye The Development of American Physiology: Scientific Medicine in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1987).
3. Background on antebellum American science is provided by Alexandra Oleson and Sanborn C. Brown, eds. The Pursuit of Knowledge in the Early American Republic: American Scientific and Learned Societies From Colonial Times to the Civil War (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1976); George H. Daniels, “The Process of Professionalization in American Science: The Emergent Period. 1820–1860,” Isis 58 (1967): 151–166; Sally Gregory Kohlstedt The Formation of the American Scientific Community: The American Association for the Advancement of Science 1848–1860 (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1976); David D. Van Tassel and Michael G. Hall, eds. Science and Society in the United States (Homewood IL: Dorsey, 1966); and Clark A. Elliott, “The American Scientist, 1800–1863: His Origins, Career and Interests” (Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve Univ., 1970). A guide to the growing literature on the social and intellectual factors that led to the progressive professionalization of science in nineteenth-century America is Paul T. Durbin, ed. A Guide to the Culture of Science Technology and Medicine (New York: Free Press, 1980).
4. For example, see Nathan Reingold, “American Indifference to Basic Research: A Reappraisal,” in Nineteenth-Century American Science: A Reappraisaled. Daniels (Evanston IL: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1972), pp. 38–62; Stanley M. Guralnick Science and the AnteBellum American College (Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society, 1975); and Numbers, “Science and Religion,” Osiris 2d ser., 1 (1985): 59–80.
5. Thomas Neville Bonner, American Doctors and German Universities: A Chapter in International Intellectual Relations, 1870–1914 ( Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1963 ).